RESEARCH REVIEW International Journal of Multidisciplinary
हिंदी में पढ़ें | ગુજરાતી માટે ક્લિક કરો RESEARCH REVIEW International Journal of Multidisciplinary is a double-blind peer-reviewed, open-access academic journal committed to advancing knowledge across a wide spectrum of disciplines through multidisciplinary research. The journal serves as a platform for scholars, practitioners, and researchers from diverse academic backgrounds to publish original and high-quality work that bridges disciplinary boundaries and fosters innovative thinking. The journal welcomes submissions in multiple languages — English, Hindi, and Gujarati — to promote inclusive academic communication and support linguistic diversity in global scholarship. Journal Information Journal Start Year: January 2016 Journal Title: RESEARCH REVIEW International Journal of Multidisciplinary ISSN (Online): 2455-3085 Impact Factor: 6.93 Crossref DOI: 10.31305/rrijm Frequency of Publication: Monthly (12 Issues per Year) Languages: English, Hindi, Gujarati Accessibility: Open Access Peer Review Process: Double Blind Peer Review Subject Coverage: Multidisciplinary Plagiarism Checker: Turnitin (Licensed) Publication Format: Online Article Acceptance Rate: 18% – 29% Contact Details Contact No.: +91-99784 40833 Email: editor@rrjournals.com Old Website: https://old.rrjournals.com/ New Website: https://rrjournals.com/ Address: 15, Kalyan Nagar, Shahpur, Ahmedabad, Gujarat – 380001 Key Features of RRIJM Journal was listed in UGC with Journal No. 44945 (Till 14-06-2019) Journal publishes online every month Online article submission system Standard double-blind peer review process
Rashtrakavi Maithili Sharan Gupt: A Powerful Voice of National Identity
Maithili Sharan Gupt is a national poet whose works reflect a remarkable synthesis of national consciousness, cultural pride, and human values. At a time when sensitivity toward national concerns often appears to be diminishing due to narrow political interests and personal ambitions, Gupt’s literature instills a sense of dedication and responsibility toward the nation. His national vision was inspired by the Indian ideal of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (the world is one family), yet he firmly believed that in times of crisis, national interest must take precedence. While deeply influenced by the Vaishnava tradition, his poetry was also shaped by the spirit of renaissance and reformist thought. Opposing superstitions and rigid social orthodoxies, he advocated the progressive and life-affirming aspects of Indian culture. Through his poetry, he expressed the ideals of an ideal society, a strong family system, and citizens of high moral character. Under the influence of the national awakening movement, Gupt’s literary works also prominently reflected themes of women’s awakening and social transformation. The active participation of women in the Indian freedom movement broadened his perspective, leading him to portray the inner world, struggles, and emotions of neglected and marginalized female characters with great sensitivity. Works such as Saket, Yashodhara, and Hidimba stand as excellent expressions of his concern for women’s experiences and emotions. Considering the welfare-oriented role of literature in society, it would not be an exaggeration to regard him as the Tulsidas of the modern age. The skill with which he connected India’s cultural heritage with modern national consciousness and contributed to the creation of new values has secured for him a unique and enduring place in Hindi literature. Abstract in Hindi Language: मैथिलीशरण गुप्त ऐसे राष्ट्रकवि हैं जिनकी रचनाओं में राष्ट्रीय चेतना, सांस्कृतिक गौरव और मानवीय मूल्यों का अद्भुत समन्वय दिखाई देता है। ऐसे समय में जब संकीर्ण राजनीतिक हितों और व्यक्तिगत स्वार्थों के कारण राष्ट्रीय सरोकारों के प्रति संवेदनशीलता क्षीण होती प्रतीत होती है, गुप्त जी का साहित्य हमें राष्ट्र के प्रति समर्पण और उत्तरदायित्व का बोध कराता है। उनकी राष्ट्रीय दृष्टि भारतीय परंपरा के “वसुधैव कुटुम्बकम्” के आदर्श से प्रेरित थी, किंतु वे यह भी मानते थे कि संकट की घड़ी में राष्ट्रहित सर्वोपरि होता है। वैष्णव भावधारा से अनुप्राणित होने के साथ-साथ उनका काव्य नवजागरण और सुधारवादी चेतना से भी प्रभावित था। उन्होंने अंधविश्वासों और जड़ रूढ़ियों का विरोध करते हुए भारतीय संस्कृति के प्रगतिशील एवं जीवनोन्मुख स्वरूप का समर्थन किया तथा आदर्श समाज, सुदृढ़ परिवार और उच्च चरित्र वाले नागरिकों की कल्पना को अपने काव्य के माध्यम से अभिव्यक्ति दी। राष्ट्रीय नवजागरण के प्रभाव से मैथिलीशरण गुप्त की रचनाधर्मिता में नारी-जागरण और सामाजिक परिवर्तन की चेतना भी प्रमुख रूप से उभरकर सामने आती है। स्वतंत्रता आंदोलन के दौर में स्त्रियों की सक्रिय भागीदारी ने उनकी दृष्टि को व्यापक बनाया, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप उन्होंने उपेक्षित एवं उपहासित नारी पात्रों के अंतर्मन, संघर्ष और संवेदनाओं को अपनी रचनाओं में प्रतिष्ठित किया। ‘साकेत’, ‘यशोधरा’ और ‘हिडिम्बा’ जैसी कृतियाँ उनकी नारी-संवेदना की उत्कृष्ट अभिव्यक्तियाँ हैं। साहित्य की लोकमंगलकारी भूमिका को दृष्टिगत रखते हुए उन्हें आधुनिक युग का तुलसीदास कहना अतिशयोक्ति नहीं होगी। जिस दक्षता के साथ उन्होंने भारतीय अतीत की सांस्कृतिक विरासत को आधुनिक राष्ट्रीय चेतना से जोड़कर नवीन मूल्यों का निर्माण किया, वह हिंदी साहित्य में उन्हें विशिष्ट और कालजयी स्थान प्रदान करती है। Keywords: मैथिलीशरण गुप्त, राष्ट्र चेतना, राष्ट्रभक्ति, राष्ट्र, अंतर्मन, संघर्ष, वसुधैव कुटुम्बकम्।
Sorrowism and Mysticism in the Poetry of Mahadevi Verma in the Perspective of Feminine Consciousness
In the Chhayavadi era of Hindi literature, mysticism emerged as a major poetic tendency, the influence of which is reflected in the works of almost all the prominent poets of the period. However, the nature of mysticism in the poetry of Mahadevi Verma is expressed in a distinctive, profound, and highly refined manner. In her poetry, the spiritual relationship established between the individual soul and the Supreme Soul, the poignant experience of separation, and the quest for the divine beloved provide a strong foundation for mystical consciousness. In Mahadevi’s poetic vision, suffering, compassion, and spiritual devotion appear deeply interconnected. In the Indian literary tradition, mysticism has its roots in Vedic, Upanishadic, and Bhakti-period thought. However, some scholars regard it merely as an Indian adaptation of Western “mysticism.” In contrast, the mysticism of Mahadevi Verma is inspired by Indian cultural and philosophical traditions, in which self-realization, spiritual love, and devotion to the infinite power occupy a central place. In her poetry, mysticism is not merely a philosophical concept but a living experience that provides a new expression to feminine sensitivity, the consciousness of suffering, and spiritual awareness. Abstract in Hindi Language: हिंदी साहित्य के छायावादी युग में रहस्यभावना एक प्रमुख काव्य-प्रवृत्ति के रूप में विकसित हुई, जिसका प्रभाव उस युग के लगभग सभी प्रमुख कवियों के साहित्य में परिलक्षित होता है। तथापि महादेवी वर्मा के काव्य में रहस्यवाद का स्वरूप विशिष्ट, गहन तथा अधिक परिष्कृत रूप में अभिव्यक्त हुआ है। उनके काव्य में आत्मा और परमात्मा के मध्य स्थापित आध्यात्मिक संबंध, विरह की मार्मिक अनुभूति तथा अलौकिक प्रिय की खोज रहस्यवादी चेतना को सशक्त आधार प्रदान करती है। महादेवी की काव्य-दृष्टि में वेदना, करुणा और आध्यात्मिक अनुराग एक-दूसरे से गहरे रूप में संबद्ध दिखाई देते हैं। भारतीय साहित्यिक परंपरा में रहस्यवाद का आधार वैदिक, उपनिषदिक तथा भक्तिकालीन चिंतन में निहित रहा है, किंतु कुछ विद्वान इसे पाश्चात्य ‘मिस्टिसिज़्म’ का भारतीय रूपांतरण मात्र मानते हैं। इसके विपरीत महादेवी वर्मा का रहस्यवाद भारतीय सांस्कृतिक एवं दार्शनिक परंपरा से अनुप्राणित है, जिसमें आत्मानुभूति, आध्यात्मिक प्रेम और अनंत सत्ता के प्रति समर्पण की भावना प्रमुख है। उनके काव्य में रहस्यवाद केवल दार्शनिक अवधारणा न होकर एक जीवंत अनुभूति के रूप में उपस्थित है, जो स्त्री-संवेदना, दुःखबोध और आध्यात्मिक चेतना को नई अभिव्यक्ति प्रदान करता है। Keywords: महादेवी वर्मा, स्त्री-चेतना, दुःखवाद, रहस्यवाद, छायावाद, आध्यात्मिक प्रेम, वेदना-बोध, नारी संवेदना, आत्मानुभूति, काव्य-दृष्टि।
An Analytical Study of the Memoir Genre in Hindi Prose Literature
Among the various genres of Hindi prose literature, memoir has emerged as a highly significant, influential, and popular literary form. This genre serves as a powerful medium for the literary expression of human memories, experiences, emotions, and intimate relationships. In memoir literature, the writer presents individuals, events, circumstances, and experiences associated with their life on the basis of memory in an artistic and emotional style. It not only describes events but also expresses the writer's inner feelings, emotions, perspectives, and philosophy of life. The development of the memoir genre in Hindi literature took place particularly during the modern period. Beginning with the Bharatendu era and continuing through the Dwivedi era, Chhayavad, and the post-Chhayavad period, this genre witnessed continuous growth. Literary figures such as Mahadevi Verma, Banarsidas Chaturvedi, Vrindavanlal Verma, Ilachandra Joshi, and Prakashchandra Gupta made significant contributions to enriching this genre. The present research paper offers an analytical study of the nature, elements, developmental process, major trends, and relationship of Hindi memoir literature with other related literary genres. It also examines the literary and social significance of Hindi memoir literature. Abstract in Hindi Language: हिन्दी गद्य साहित्य की विविध विधाओं में संस्मरण एक अत्यन्त महत्त्वपूर्ण, प्रभावशाली तथा लोकप्रिय विधा के रूप में स्थापित हुआ है। यह विधा मानव जीवन की स्मृतियों, अनुभवों, संवेदनाओं तथा आत्मीय संबंधों की साहित्यिक अभिव्यक्ति का सशक्त माध्यम है। संस्मरण साहित्य में लेखक अपने जीवन से जुड़े व्यक्तियों, घटनाओं, परिस्थितियों और अनुभवों को स्मृति के आधार पर कलात्मक एवं भावात्मक शैली में प्रस्तुत करता है। इसमें केवल घटनाओं का वर्णन ही नहीं होता, बल्कि लेखक की आंतरिक संवेदना, मनोभाव, दृष्टिकोण तथा जीवन-दर्शन भी अभिव्यक्त होते हैं। हिन्दी साहित्य में संस्मरण विधा का विकास आधुनिक काल में विशेष रूप से हुआ। भारतेन्दु युग से प्रारम्भ होकर द्विवेदी युग, छायावाद तथा छायावादोत्तर युग में इस विधा ने निरन्तर विकास किया। महादेवी वर्मा, बनारसीदास चतुर्वेदी, वृन्दावनलाल वर्मा, इलाचन्द्र जोशी तथा प्रकाशचन्द्र गुप्त जैसे साहित्यकारों ने इस विधा को समृद्ध बनाने में महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया। प्रस्तुत शोध-पत्र में हिन्दी संस्मरण साहित्य के स्वरूप, तत्त्वों, विकास-क्रम, प्रमुख प्रवृत्तियों तथा अन्य निकटवर्ती विधाओं से उसके संबंध का विश्लेषणात्मक अध्ययन प्रस्तुत किया गया है। साथ ही हिन्दी संस्मरण साहित्य की साहित्यिक एवं सामाजिक उपयोगिता पर भी विचार किया गया है। Keywords: संस्मरण, हिन्दी गद्य साहित्य, स्मृति, आत्मनिष्ठता, रेखाचित्र, आत्मकथा, संस्मरणकार।
The Gap between Academic English and Interactional English in Indian ELT
Academic literacy, or the formal, written language of exams and institutional settings, has long been given priority in English language instruction in India, but the interactional competence necessary for everyday communication has been generally overlooked. Using theoretical frameworks from applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, this research investigates the nature, causes, and effects of this division within the Indian ELT scene. The study makes the case through a critical analysis of pertinent literature that the excessive focus on academic English, which is maintained by grammar-translation pedagogy, examination-driven instruction, and insufficient teacher preparation, results in students who are linguistically proficient on paper but have limited communication skills in real life. The study also examines how this disparity is mediated by multilingualism, code-switching conventions, and the aspirational value of English in Indian society. Pedagogical suggestions are made for a more well-rounded strategy.
Effects of using YouTube on Infants: A Study on Parental Perspective
The present study was carried out to find out the effects of using YouTube on kids or infants. The study was descriptive type survey research in nature. The study was conducted on100 parents who had smartphone and using YouTube and whose children were studying in nine (9) different kindergarten schools (with age group 3-5 years) situated in the district of Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal, India. The data were collected by using self-made questionnaire which was constructed with 26 items/statements which were distributed into five (5) dimensions, like-Intellectual Aspect (7 items), Creativity Aspect (4 items), Health (Physical & Mental) Aspect (5 items), Behavioural Aspect (6 items) and Educational Aspect (4 items). The findings of the study showed that YouTube helps to develop intellectual capacity as well as skill of questioning among our infants. It also helps to develop creativity of the infants to little bit. It was interestingly found from the findings of the study that YouTube has a lot of negative effects on mental as well as physical health of our kids, such as it creates problems related to eating, eye and sleep. It was also found that YouTube creates many behavioural problems, such as became cranky or bad-tempered, showing undisciplined behaviours or activities and make crying illogically. Another important thing was found that educational aspect of the kids is also affected by watching YouTube. YouTube addiction makes infants reluctant to go to school sometimes and also disturbs their interest to study.
The Disconnect between Linguistic Accuracy and Communicative Effectiveness in Indian ELT
This paper examines the persistent disconnect between linguistic accuracy and communicative effectiveness in Indian English Language Teaching (ELT). Despite widespread grammatical instruction, many learners remain unable to communicate fluently and purposefully in real-world contexts. The Grammar-Translation Method, examination-driven pedagogy, poor teacher preparation, and sociocultural attitudes about English are the main causes maintaining this gap, according to the study, which draws on learner data, classroom observations, and applied linguistics scholarship. The paper argues for a balanced, contextualised communicative language teaching (CLT) approach suited to India's multilingual sociolinguistic reality, and discusses implications for assessment reform, teacher education, and language policy.
Study of Heat Treatment Processes for Crown Nuts
The purpose of this study is to experimentally determine the heat treatment parameters for 41Cr4 steel that ensure an optimal balance of hardness, strength, and ductility in crown wrenches. The novelty of the work includes comparing heat treatment times of 10 and 27 minutes during quenching, assessing the effect of partial qunching on the hardness distribution, and taking into account the influence of the geometric shape of the tool on the efficiency of the heat treatments cycle. The cumulative results demonstrate that a hardness range of 50-55 HRC is optimal for the steel crown wrench. The optimal hardening temperature range is 830-860 °C with a holding time of approximately 27 minutes.
Analysis of the Role of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in the Economic Empowerment of Rural Women
Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as an important and transformative instrument for the economic empowerment of rural women, creating a “silent revolution” in rural India. This study analyzes the role of SHGs based on economic, social, and financial indicators. Through SHGs, women’s access to banking services has increased from 30 percent to 95 percent, while their participation in household decision-making has risen from 20 percent to 75 percent. Analysis of annual income reveals that the proportion of women in the income category above ₹60,000 has increased by 41.7 percent, reflecting their economic advancement. SHGs have enabled women to become self-reliant through microfinance, savings, skill development, and entrepreneurship, freeing them from the exploitation of moneylenders. Institutions such as the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development and the National Rural Livelihoods Mission have strengthened this model at the national level. The study also shows that SHGs are transforming women from “beneficiaries” into “active economic agents,” thereby promoting rural development and gender equality. Abstract in Hindi Language: ग्रामीण महिलाओं के आर्थिक सशक्तिकरण में स्वयं सहायता समूह (SHGs) एक महत्वपूर्ण और परिवर्तनकारी साधन के रूप में उभरे हैं, जिन्होंने ग्रामीण भारत में “मूक क्रांति” का निर्माण किया है। यह अध्ययन SHGs की भूमिका का विश्लेषण आर्थिक, सामाजिक और वित्तीय संकेतकों के आधार पर करता है। SHGs के माध्यम से महिलाओं की बैंकिंग पहुँच 30 प्रतिशत से बढ़कर 95 प्रतिशत हो गई है, जबकि घरेलू निर्णयों में उनकी भागीदारी 20 प्रतिशत से बढ़कर 75 प्रतिशत तक पहुँच गई है। वार्षिक आय के विश्लेषण से स्पष्ट होता है कि ₹60,000 से अधिक आय वर्ग में महिलाओं की हिस्सेदारी में 41.7 प्रतिशत की वृद्धि हुई है, जो उनकी आर्थिक उन्नति को दर्शाती है। SHGs ने सूक्ष्म वित्त, बचत, कौशल विकास और उद्यमिता के माध्यम से महिलाओं को साहूकारों के शोषण से मुक्त कर आत्मनिर्भर बनाया है। राष्ट्रीय कृषि और ग्रामीण विकास बैंक तथा राष्ट्रीय ग्रामीण आजीविका मिशन जैसी संस्थाओं ने इस मॉडल को राष्ट्रीय स्तर पर सुदृढ़ किया है। अध्ययन यह भी दर्शाता है कि SHGs महिलाओं को ‘लाभार्थी’ से ‘सक्रिय आर्थिक कर्ता’ में परिवर्तित कर रहे हैं, जिससे ग्रामीण विकास और लैंगिक समानता को बढ़ावा मिल रहा है। Keywords: स्वयं सहायता समूह, आर्थिक सशक्तिकरण, सूक्ष्म वित्त, ग्रामीण विकास, महिला उद्यमिता, और वित्तीय समावेशन
Navigating Futures: Analysing Career Awareness Levels Among Undergraduate Students
In the contemporary era, Career Awareness serve as a critical tool for the undergraduate students, helping them to become an active planner of their own employability from passive recipients of information. By enhancing the career awareness, students can coordinate their aspirations with their individual strengths and find satisfying career options. The primary aim of the present study is to analyse the level of career awareness among undergraduate students and identify the factors influencing their future preparedness. A total of 300 undergraduate students drawn as sample for the study from Nayagarh District, Odisha. Self developed questionnaire based on different career information was used for data collection. The data were analysed through different analysis techniques like Mean, Standard deviation, percentage analysis, frequency, t-test and One way ANOVA by using SPSS software. The study revealed that majority of students (53.33%) have moderate level of career awareness. In relation to Academic stream, there is significant difference in career awareness level observed, with Commerce students (M = 147.57, SD = 12.806) have the highest career awareness level, followed by science students (M = 143.25, SD = 13.122), while Arts students (M = 134.20, SD = 11.802) recorded the lowest level. On the basis of gender analysis revealed that female (M = 145.46) possesses significantly higher career awareness than males (M = 140.81). Additionally, the result found that social media plays a significant for career guidance than the convectional campus facilities, a considerable number of students reported a lack of mentorship from their teachers. The study also showed that family influence and economic background significantly influencing the career awareness level. The findings of the study suggested that organization of career talks and integration of digital tools must be integrated in educational institutions for creating awareness among undergraduate students. Further it is recommended that career counsellor must be appointed in educational institutions on regular basis.
Future-Ready Learning: Integrating Technology to Enhance Adolescent Academic and Cognitive Development
Integration of technology to enhance learning experience of adolescent has transformed traditional learning methods, offering personalized, adaptive, and engaging experiences. Tools such as gamification, virtual labs, and collaborative platforms like Google Classroom have enhanced academic performance, motivation, and critical thinking. However, challenges like the digital divide, digital distractions, and insufficient teacher training hinder equitable access and effective implementation. Emerging technologies like AI, VR, and AR provide immersive, data-driven learning opportunities, fostering creativity and problem-solving skills. This research highlights the transformative potential of technology in education while emphasizing the need for robust infrastructure, teacher training, and digital literacy programs. By addressing these challenges, technology can create an inclusive, engaging, and future-ready learning environment for adolescents.
Girnar Parikrama is one of the oldest and most sacred pilgrimage traditions of Gujarat, associated with the ancient Girnar mountain near Junagadh. This article examines the historical, religious, cultural, and social significance of Girnar and its Parikrama tradition. Girnar has been known by various names such as Raivat, Ujjayant, and Girinarayan in ancient scriptures, inscriptions, and literary works. The mountain is considered a spiritual center for Hindu, Jain, and Nath traditions, with sacred places like Bhavnath Mahadev, Dattatreya Peak, Ambaji Temple, and Neminath Jain temples. The article traces the evolution of the Girnar Parikrama from ancient times to the modern period, including its revival in 1864 under Diwan Anantji Vasavada. The study also highlights the role of saints, local communities, and cultural traditions in preserving the pilgrimage. Today, the Lili Parikrama represents a unique blend of devotion, nature, heritage, and collective cultural identity in Gujarat. Abstract in Gujarati Language: ગિરનાર પરિક્રમા ગુજરાતની અતિપ્રાચીન અને પવિત્ર યાત્રાઓમાંની એક છે, જે જુનાગઢ નજીક આવેલા ગિરનાર પર્વત સાથે સંકળાયેલી છે. આ લેખમાં ગિરનાર પરિક્રમાનું ઐતિહાસિક, ધાર્મિક, સાંસ્કૃતિક અને સામાજિક મહત્વ રજૂ કરવામાં આવ્યું છે. પ્રાચીન ગ્રંથો, શિલાલેખો અને સાહિત્યમાં ગિરનારને રૈવત, ઉજ્જયંત અને ગિરિનારાયણ જેવા નામોથી ઓળખાવવામાં આવ્યો છે. ગિરનાર હિંદુ, જૈન અને નાથ પરંપરાઓ માટે આધ્યાત્મિક કેન્દ્ર તરીકે માન્ય રહ્યો છે. ભવનાથ મહાદેવ, દત્તાત્રેય શિખર, અંબાજી મંદિર અને નેમિનાથ જૈન તીર્થ જેવા પવિત્ર સ્થળો તેની વિશેષતા દર્શાવે છે. લેખમાં ગિરનાર પરિક્રમાના પ્રાચીન સમયથી આધુનિક સમય સુધીના વિકાસ, ૧૮૬૪માં થયેલા પુનર્જીવન તથા સંતો, સ્થાનિક સમાજ અને સેવાભાવી પરંપરાના યોગદાનનું વિશ્લેષણ કરવામાં આવ્યું છે. આજના સમયમાં લીલી પરિક્રમા ભક્તિ, પ્રકૃતિ, લોકસંસ્કૃતિ અને ગુજરાતની સાંસ્કૃતિક ઓળખનું જીવંત પ્રતિક બની રહી છે. Keywords: ગિરનાર પરિક્રમા, જૂનાગઢ, ધાર્મિક યાત્રા, સાંસ્કૃતિક વારસો, ગિરનાર પર્વત
Cybercrime Awareness among Undergraduate Students of Western Odisha: A Survey on Gender and Locality Based Differences
The rapid expansion of internet usage in higher education has made undergraduate students one of the most vulnerable groups to cyber threats. Cybercrime today covers a wide range of unlawful acts including hacking, identity theft, phishing, financial fraud, cyber stalking, and online harassment. The present study was designed to examine the level of cybercrime awareness among undergraduate students of Balangir district in Odisha with reference to their gender and locality. A descriptive survey method was adopted for the investigation. The sample consisted of 120 undergraduate students enrolled at Rajendra University, Balangir, drawn through simple random sampling, with equal representation by gender (60 males and 60 females) and locality (60 urban and 60 rural). A researcher made structured questionnaire of 35 items rated on a five point Likert scale that was developed and administered after establishing content validity through expert opinion and reliability through pilot testing. The data collected were analyzed using percentage analysis, mean, standard deviation and the independent samples t-test. Findings revealed that the majority of the respondents fall within the average to above average category of cybercrime awareness. Urban students reported slightly higher mean scores (M = 118.43) than rural students (M = 116.78), although the difference was not statistically significant (t = 0.642, p > 0.05). Female students showed marginally higher awareness (M = 119.45) than their male counterparts (M = 115.77), but the difference also did not reach statistical significance (t = 1.442, p > 0.05). The novelty of the present work lies in providing locality specific empirical evidence from a tribal dominated district of western Odisha, an under-researched region in Indian cybercrime literature. The study recommends the integration of cyber safety modules into the undergraduate curriculum and the regular conduct of awareness programmes for students.
Identification of Controlling Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
The present study assesses seasonal variations and controlling factors in groundwater quality in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area using descriptive statistics and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Twenty-two physicochemical and microbial parameters were analyzed for both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The results reveal significant seasonal variation in groundwater quality due to the combined influence of geogenic and anthropogenic processes. During the pre-monsoon season, groundwater quality is mainly controlled by salinity and mineral dissolution, hardness and microbial contamination, organic pollution and fluoride enrichment, and sulfate enrichment. In the post-monsoon season, additional processes such as nutrient pollution, nitrate and fluoride influence, alkalinity and sodium enrichment, and microbial contamination become more prominent due to rainfall recharge and contaminant leaching. Several stations, particularly Stations 6, 7, 9, 13, 16, 20, and 21, show severe groundwater quality deterioration due to the influence of multiple contamination processes. The study highlights the strong seasonal and spatial variability of groundwater quality in the study area and emphasizes the need for effective groundwater management and pollution control strategies.
Reading Difficulties and Coping Strategies Among Grade 8 ESL Learners: A Descriptive-Correlational Study
Reading is a critical academic skill, yet many Filipino Grade 8 ESL learners, particularly those in rural and semi-urban communities, continue to struggle with it while their coping responses to such difficulties remain largely unexamined in local literature. This study examined the reading difficulties experienced by Grade 8 ESL learners and the coping strategies they employ when managing these challenges, as well as the relationship between the two variables. A descriptive-correlational research design under the quantitative approach was employed. The respondents of this study were 27 Grade 8 ESL learners from a private school in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines, identified as having reading difficulties and were selected through purposive sampling. Data were gathered using an adapted Likert-scale questionnaire measuring four domains of reading difficulty: decoding, fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary, and four domains of coping strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, vocabulary, and fluency-based. Weighted mean, standard deviation, and Pearson r correlation were used to analyze the data. Results revealed that learners experience reading difficulties at a moderate and occasional level overall (M = 2.43, SD = 0.13), with vocabulary emerging as the most prevalent domain (M = 2.61, Often) and decoding as the least (M = 2.29, Sometimes). Coping strategies were similarly used at a moderate and occasional level (M = 2.40, SD = 0.07), with vocabulary strategies most frequently employed (M = 2.51) and fluency-based strategies the least (M = 2.35). Pearson r analysis revealed that the null hypothesis is partially rejected as fluency-related reading difficulty demonstrated significant positive relationships with cognitive (r = 0.481, p = 0.011), metacognitive (r = 0.464, p = 0.015), and fluency-based strategies (r = 0.393, p = 0.042), while all other pairings yielded non-significant relationships. These findings suggest that coping strategies are predominantly activated in response to fluency difficulties rather than proactively applied across all reading domains.
Environmental Multilateralism in Crisis: The Future of Global Climate Institutions
Environmental multilateralism has entered a period of profound institutional crisis despite the increasing urgency of climate change. Global climate institutions have struggled to effectively coordinate collective action amid geopolitical tensions, economic inequalities, and weak enforcement mechanisms. This article critically examines the structural and political challenges confronting institutions such as the UNFCCC, IPCC, and UNEP. It further evaluates emerging governance trends including climate clubs, non-state actors, and technological diplomacy. The paper argues that while environmental multilateralism faces declining legitimacy, it remains indispensable for planetary governance. The future of global climate institutions depends upon institutional reform, equitable climate finance, scientific integration, and climate justice.
Nagaland is one of the northeastern states of India. The administrative language of Nagaland is English, although Nagaland has around 17 tribal languages which are part of non- schedule language list as mentioned in census 2011. But none of them could be considered as an official language of this state. As we know that the official languages of India are Hindi and English. According to the census 2011, Hindi is the most spoken language of India with 43.6% of total population of India. It is a language of business, trade, media, communication, social media, jobs and becoming a need of an hour to accept, learn and promote Hindi in Nagaland. Now a days, central and state governments are promoting it in various ways.
From Tradition to Modernity Pedagogical Strategies for Integrating Indian Knowledge Systems in Higher Education
This paper deals with the pedagogical infusion of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) in higher education in the context of the National Education Policy 2020 with special reference to the bridging of the interface between tradition and modernity in the time of globalisation. Drawing on a theoretical and conceptual orientation, the paper synthesizes interdisciplinary literature to develop a comprehensive pedagogical framework that includes curriculum design, interdisciplinary teaching, experiential learning and research integration. The study emphasizes the importance of integrating local knowledge, skill-based learning and discipline-specific applications to promote contextual relevance and academic rigor. The results suggest that a hybrid pedagogical model that integrates indigenous epistemologies and current educational practices can promote holistic, inclusive and globally competitive higher education. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse of decolonising knowledge systems.
Adharajan’s Haryanvi Saang-Style Raginis: An Analytical Study in the Context of Pingal Prosody and Folk-Cultural Perspectives (With Reference to Raginis 17–23)
This study presents a critical analysis of Haryanvi Sāng-style Rāgṇīs (17–23) from Adharājan, examining them through the combined frameworks of Pingal prosody and folk-cultural expression. Using a qualitative, text-centric methodology based on close reading and prosodic analysis, the paper explores how classical metrical principles interact with the flexibility of oral-performance traditions. The analysis highlights the dynamic relationship between narrative progression, emotional intensity, and structural design, demonstrating that elements such as mātrā-vinyāsa (syllabic distribution), flexible yati (caesural pauses), and evolving rhyme schemes are not merely formal devices but integral to the expressive and performative power of the compositions. The role of refrain (tek) and popular melodic templates (tarz) is also examined, showing how they enhance audience engagement while extending the accessibility of traditional metrics. The selected rāgṇīs, centered on the figure of Raskapūr, reveal a layered dramaturgy in which themes of love, conspiracy, power, and female subjectivity are articulated through dialogic and monologic poetic forms. Situated within a feudal-patriarchal socio-cultural context, these compositions function as sites of emotional expression, symbolic resistance, and cultural negotiation. The study further argues that Pingal śāstra, rather than remaining rigid, demonstrates considerable adaptability within vernacular practice, allowing for both structural innovation and experiential depth. By integrating literary, prosodic, and cultural perspectives, this paper establishes that Adharājan’s work not only sustains the classical Pingal tradition but also redefines it through performative praxis, thereby contributing significantly to the evolving discourse of North Indian folk poetics and performance literature. Abstract in Hindi Language: यह शोध-पत्र अधराजण की हरियाणवी सांग-शैली की रागणियों (17–23) का पिंगल शास्त्र तथा लोक-सांस्कृतिक परिप्रेक्ष्य में विश्लेषण प्रस्तुत करता है। अध्ययन का उद्देश्य यह स्पष्ट करना है कि ये रागणियाँ शास्त्रीय छंद-विधान और लोक-परंपरागत अभिव्यक्ति के बीच एक सशक्त सेतु निर्मित करती हैं। गुणात्मक, पाठ-आधारित पद्धति के अंतर्गत निकट-पाठ और छंद-विश्लेषण के माध्यम से यह दर्शाया गया है कि मात्रा-विन्यास, यति-संरचना, तुकांत योजना और टेक की पुनरावृत्ति केवल काव्य-शिल्प तक सीमित नहीं रहती, बल्कि भाव-संप्रेषण, नाटकीयता और मंचीय प्रभाव के प्रमुख साधन बनती हैं। लोकप्रिय तर्जों के प्रयोग से रचनाएँ श्रवण-सुलभ बनती हैं और दर्शक-भागीदारी को सुदृढ़ करती हैं। चयनित रागणियाँ, जिनका केंद्र रसकपूर का चरित्र है, प्रेम, षड्यंत्र, सत्ता और स्त्री-अस्मिता जैसे विषयों को संवादात्मक और एकालापीय विन्यास में प्रस्तुत करती हैं। राधा–केशव रूपक, दरबारी षड्यंत्र और कारावास जैसी स्थितियाँ कथ्य को बहुस्तरीय बनाते हुए मध्यकालीन सामंती मानसिकता और स्त्री-विमर्श के अंतर्संबंधों को उद्घाटित करती हैं। अध्ययन यह भी रेखांकित करता है कि पिंगल शास्त्र, अपनी मूल संरचना को बनाए रखते हुए, लोक-प्रयोग में लचीला रूप ग्रहण करता है और नई अभिव्यक्तियों के लिए स्थान निर्मित करता है। समग्रतः, यह शोध प्रतिपादित करता है कि अधराजण की रागणियाँ परंपरा और प्रयोग के संतुलन के माध्यम से पिंगल परंपरा का पुनर्सृजन करती हैं। इस प्रकार वे उत्तर भारतीय लोककाव्य, प्रदर्शन परंपरा और स्त्री-विमर्श के अध्ययन के लिए एक महत्त्वपूर्ण स्रोत के रूप में स्थापित होती हैं। Keywords: हरियाणवी सांग परंपरा, रागणी काव्य, पिंगल शास्त्र, लोक-प्रदर्शन साहित्य, मौखिक परंपरा, सांस्कृतिक आख्यान, स्त्री-विमर्श, प्रदर्शनात्मक सौंदर्यशास्त्र
An Empirical Study of Spiritual Intelligence and Job Satisfaction Among College Teachers
The present empirical study investigates the relationship between spiritual intelligence and job satisfaction among college teachers. The study also aimed to analyze institutional and gender-based differences in spiritual intelligence and job satisfaction. A random sampling technique was employed to select a sample of 400 teachers and 20 colleges representing various academic disciplines from different colleges of district Meerut and Ghaziabad. Standardized instruments, namely the short form of the Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale (ISIS) and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS), were administered to collect the data. The collected data were analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques, including Pearson’s correlation coefficient and the t-test. The findings of the study revealed a strong and positive relationship between spiritual intelligence and job satisfaction among college teachers. The results further indicated that teachers working in government colleges exhibited higher levels of spiritual intelligence and job satisfaction compared to their counterparts in self-financed colleges. Additionally, the study found no significant gender difference in spiritual intelligence; however, female teachers were observed to be more satisfied with their jobs than male teachers. The study highlights the importance of spiritual intelligence as a significant psychological resource in enhancing job satisfaction among college teachers and offers valuable implications for educational administrators and policy makers.
Organic farming is increasingly recognized as a sustainable alternative to conventional agriculture, emphasizing ecological balance, biodiversity conservation, and reduced dependence on chemical inputs. In India, the promotion of organic agriculture is gaining momentum through various policy frameworks and institutional support mechanisms. Odisha, a primarily agrarian state with diverse agro-climatic zones and a high proportion of small and marginal farmers, holds considerable potential for organic farming. This study aims to assess the current status of organic farming in Odisha with three core objectives: (1) to examine the extent and spread of organic farming across the state; (2) to analyze the economic viability of organic practices compared to conventional methods through cost-benefit analysis; and (3) to propose appropriate policy measures for the sustainable expansion of organic agriculture. The findings reveal a growing but regionally concentrated adoption of organic farming, especially in tribal districts like Kandhamal, Koraput, and Rayagada. Organic farming has shown higher profitability in selected crops such as turmeric and millets due to reduced input costs and premium market prices, despite marginally lower yields. Government schemes like the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and the Odisha Millet Mission (OMM) have significantly contributed to the promotion of organic farming practices. However, the sector still faces several challenges, including certification hurdles, inadequate market access, and limited farmer awareness. The study concludes that strategic interventions—such as decentralizing certification, strengthening Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and integrating organic value chains—are essential for the wider adoption and long-term sustainability of organic farming in Odisha.
Ethnic Life and Cultural Heritage of the Binjhal Tribe of Odisha
Odisha is one of the major tribal states of India, where many tribal communities preserve their unique culture, traditions, language, and social values. Among the 64 recognized tribes of Odisha, the Binjhal tribe holds an important place and is listed at serial number 10 in the Scheduled Tribe list. They are mainly found in the western districts of Odisha such as Bargarh, Balangir, Nuapada, and Sambalpur. According to the 2011 Census, their population is about 1,37,000. Their presiding deity is Maa Bindhyabasini, and their religious life is closely connected with nature worship, ancestor worship, and village deities like Budharaja and Karmasani. This paper studies the origin, naming, family system, marriage customs, food habits, religion, and historical importance of the Binjhal tribe. The name “Binjhal” is believed to come from “Bin + Jhal,” meaning “without sweat,” showing their strength and hardworking nature. Another belief connects their origin with the Vindhya Mountain region. Their title “Bariha” is linked to a legendary wild boar hunting story, symbolizing bravery. The Binjhal family system is patriarchal and mostly joint in nature. They are known as a brave warrior community with strong social values. Their food habits, marriage customs, and festivals reflect their close relationship with agriculture and forests. The contribution of leaders like Madho Singh and Kunjal Singh in freedom struggles also shows their historical importance in Odisha.
Role of Artificial Intelligence in Revolutionizing Lesson Plan for teaching: A Systematic Review
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in school education is becoming increasingly important. It has significant effects on various dimensions of education system such as instructional practices, assessment strategies, and administrative processes. It also plays a vital role in instructional design or lesson plan. However no systematic review studies focus on summarising research on the role of AI in lesson planning. For this reason, this study aims to systematically review research on the use of AI for lesson planning. The researchers performed a systematic review according to the PRISMA statement. A systematic search was used across IEEE Explore, BASE, ERIC, DOAJ and Science Direct to identify peer reviewed articles spanning from 1 January 2010 to 30 March 2026.Keywords used were “AI or Artificial Intelligence, Generative AI” and “Lesson Plan or Instructional design” and “School”. A total of 627 titles and abstracts were screened for eligibility, of which 29 articles met eligibility criteria for full text review. Following a more detailed screening, 21 articles met the criteria for inclusion in the systematic review. The findings indicate that AI provides significant advantages, like reducing time in material creation, boosting creativity in pedagogy and streamlined lesson organisation. This study reveals that most of the in-service and pre-service teachers use AI tools like Gemini, ChatGPT and Microsoft copilot and magic school AI for designing the lesson plan. However, application of AI tools comes with several challenges such as inconsistent quality and less contextual relevance, necessitating proper human oversight and evaluation.
This paper examines the dramatic protagonists of Indian contemporary fiction as advanced by the author Preeti Shenoy. It is argued that Shenoy’s protagonists are not ‘women of substance’ by virtue of being flawless or publicly revolutionary. Rather, they are the women, who survive the most difficult crossroads, and the constant motion beyond emotional breakdown, family disputes, social and class anxieties and judgment Shenoy’s work challenges the Indian literary fiction canon as she addresses the heretofore under-accounted issues such as the complexities of mental health, the institution of marriage, the world of work, the and care, as well as the self identity of Indian women, offered in an accessible and compelling manner. Key protagonists of Shenoy’s fiction such as Ankita, Vipasha, Veda, Diksha, and Alka and women characters in ‘The One You Cannot Have’ are analyzed in the light of the emerging ‘new Indian woman’ in contemporary Indian women’s fiction, and the post-liberalization Indian chick-lit. It also employs contemporary India data on women’s labour, unpaid carework, and mental health to establish the social realism of her characters. It is ascertained that Shenoy offers women protagonists W emotional depth and moral richness, however most of her fiction situates empowerment as ‘personal negotiation’ rather than a viable ‘collective empowerment’. Despite this, her protagonists are the first to showcase the complexities of women’s private realms in the popular Indian novel.
Socio-economic Determinants of Educational Dropout among Tribal Students: A Study of Madarihat-Birpara Block, Alipurduar District
This study explores the socio-economic determinants of educational dropout among tribal students in the Madarihat-Birpara Block of West Bengal, where high dropout rates remain a pressing concern. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 50 tribal students through structured questionnaires, along with interviews of parents and teachers to capture diverse perspectives. The findings reveal that poverty, family responsibilities, cultural marginalization, and inadequate educational infrastructure are the primary drivers of dropout. Gender disparities are evident, with boys often leaving school for agricultural or wage labour, while girls face household duties, sibling care, and early marriage. Class distribution data shows that most students are concentrated in Classes 5–8, but dropout accelerates after Class 8, making secondary education the most fragile stage. Family responsibilities (38%) and financial constraints (26%) emerge as the leading causes, followed by poor academic performance (22%) and lack of interest in studies (14%). Teachers highlight language barriers, absenteeism, and the absence of culturally sensitive pedagogy as further challenges. The study concludes that dropout is a systemic issue rooted in socio-economic insecurity rather than individual choice, and recommends financial assistance, culturally inclusive curricula, parental engagement, and vocational support to ensure sustainable education for tribal students in Madarihat-Birpara.
Silence in Kalinga, Voice at the Frontier: A Comparative Study of Spatial Messaging in the Edicts of Ashoka
This study examines the spatial distribution of the edicts of Ashoka and argues that they reflect a deliberate strategy of differentiated political communication rather than a uniform expression of moral governance. While the Kalinga War is described in detail in Major Rock Edict XIII at northwestern frontier sites such as Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra, it is notably absent in inscriptions located within the conquered region of Kalinga, including Dhauli and Jaugada. This asymmetry raises critical questions regarding the intended audience and function of these texts. Drawing on a comparative spatial-textual analysis of selected inscriptions, this article demonstrates that Ashoka’s proclamations were strategically calibrated according to regional political contexts. In newly annexed territories, the omission of conquest narratives functioned to stabilize authority and suppress traumatic memory. In contrast, at imperial frontiers, the articulation of remorse served to project moral legitimacy and reinforce imperial authority. Building on recent scholarship by Nayanjot Lahiri and Upinder Singh, this study introduces the concepts of asymmetrical spatial messaging and the geopolitics of inscription to reinterpret Ashoka’s edicts as instruments of governance. The findings contribute to a broader understanding of how ancient empires used spatially differentiated communication to manage power, memory, and legitimacy.
Sustainable Economic Development through Cultural Tourism in Lucknow
This paper examines the historical evolution, heritage resources, infrastructure, economic impact, and tourist perceptions of cultural and heritage tourism in Lucknow, with the aim of suggesting sustainable policy strategies for tourism development in Uttar Pradesh. Tourism is a key driver of employment, poverty reduction, and economic growth, gaining priority in national planning. While policy reforms support its expansion, the sector faces volatility and competition. Beyond economic gains, tourism aids heritage conservation and improves living standards but also affects ecosystems and sociocultural values. The paper is based on secondary data and urban tourism, infrastructure, and governance, analyzing stakeholder perceptions to develop a roadmap for sustainable cultural and pilgrimage tourism.
Ethics in the Age of Artificial Intelligence
The rapid development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has brought revolutionary changes in various fields of human life in the 21st century, including education, healthcare, industry, administration, and communication. This technology makes tasks more efficient, faster, and more accurate; however, it has also given rise to several ethical challenges. This study analyzes the concept, development, capabilities, and social impacts of AI, while also explaining the role of ethics in detail. The purpose of AI ethics is to ensure that technology is used in accordance with human values, rights, and social welfare. Major ethical concerns include algorithmic bias, violation of data privacy, lack of transparency and accountability, job displacement, deepfakes, and autonomous weapons. To address these issues, transparent systems, diverse datasets, strict regulatory frameworks, a human-centered approach, and public awareness are essential. Abstract in Hindi Language: कृत्रिम बुद्धिमत्ता के तीव्र विकास ने 21वीं सदी में मानव जीवन के विभिन्न क्षेत्रों- शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य, उद्योग, प्रशासन और संचारकृमें क्रांतिकारी परिवर्तन लाया है। यह तकनीक कार्यों को अधिक कुशल, तेज और सटीक बनाती है, परंतु इसके साथ अनेक नैतिक चुनौतियाँ भी उभरकर सामने आई हैं। इस अध्ययन में एआई की अवधारणा, विकास, क्षमताओं तथा इसके सामाजिक प्रभावों का विश्लेषण किया गया है, साथ ही नैतिकता की भूमिका को विस्तार से समझाया गया है। एआई नैतिकता का उद्देश्य यह सुनिश्चित करना है कि तकनीक का उपयोग मानव मूल्यों, अधिकारों और सामाजिक कल्याण के अनुरूप हो। प्रमुख नैतिक चिंताओं में एल्गोरिथमिक पक्षपात, डेटा गोपनीयता का उल्लंघन, पारदर्शिता और जवाबदेही की कमी, रोजगार विस्थापन, डीपफेक और स्वायत्त हथियार शामिल हैं। इन समस्याओं के समाधान के लिए पारदर्शी प्रणालियाँ, विविध डेटा, सख्त नियामक ढाँचा, मानव-केंद्रित दृष्टिकोण तथा जागरूकता आवश्यक हैं। Keywords: कृत्रिम बुद्धिमत्ता, एआई नैतिकता, एल्गोरिथमिक पक्षपात, डेटा गोपनीयता, पारदर्शिता, उत्तरदायित्व, स्वचालन, और मानव-केंद्रित तकनीक
Self-Efficacy in Art Integration: Investigating how intensive training in visual arts pedagogy influences the confidence and classroom practices of pre-service teachers
This paper explores how intensive training can be used in visual arts pedagogy to improve pre-service teachers self-efficacy and classroom practices. Arts integration in modern-day education has been developed as an effective tool in education that promotes creativity, engagement, and learning. Nonetheless, lack of exposure and poor training is associated with low confidence levels in integrating visual arts in teaching by many pre-service teachers. Based on the theory of self-efficacy of Bandura, the study investigates the effects of structured and practice-based training on teachers and their beliefs about their instructional abilities and readiness to embrace new teaching strategies. The mixed-method approach was used to collect data on pre-service teachers that were measured using self-efficacy scales, questionnaires, and reflective observations prior to and after attending an intensive training program. The results show that the level of confidence of the participants has greatly increased, and the practices of the classroom of the participants have changed towards more interactive and arts-based approaches. The paper describes that experiential training is a critical factor in closing the gap between theory and practice. It concludes that meaningful change in the teaching practices can be achieved by enhancing self-efficacy using specific interventions and recommends the introduction of arts training programs into the teacher education curriculum.
Major Sources for the Study of Indian Buddhism
In the historiography of Buddhism, archaeological sources can be identified much more accurately in terms of place and time than written documents, and they also provide followers of Indian Buddhism with a form of “unrestricted” access to the religion. Despite all these factors, a large section of modern Buddhist scholarship still regards written texts as the most important and authentic source of information about Buddhism, while archaeological material is viewed merely as supplementary evidence. In other words, the significance of archaeological sources as independent evidence has long been neglected. This study attempts to demonstrate that Buddhist studies based solely on written documents, without the support of archaeology, may produce highly misleading conclusions whose authenticity remains questionable.
Important Buddhist places and Indian Buddhism
The study of Indian Buddhism has traditionally relied upon two major categories of sources: textual materials and archaeological epigraphic evidence. This study critically examines the limitations of text-centered approaches and highlights the significance of archaeological evidence in reconstructing the history and nature of Indian Buddhism. Written sources largely reflect the perspectives of a small literate elite and were often shaped by later religious, political, and sectarian influences. Furthermore, many Buddhist texts were compiled centuries after the Buddha’s lifetime, survive only in altered versions, and are preserved mainly outside India, making chronological authenticity difficult to establish. Victorian-era Indologists and colonial scholars further reinforced a textual understanding of Buddhism, treating literary traditions as the primary representation of “real Buddhism.” In contrast, archaeological and epigraphic sources provide more direct and relatively unbiased insights into the actual religious practices of Buddhist communities across different social and economic groups. Excavations at sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini demonstrate that material evidence often challenges textual assumptions regarding monastic life, renunciation, and sacred geography. The study also emphasizes that Buddhist monuments such as stupas, chaityas, and vihāras were not exclusively Buddhist and must be understood within the broader multi-religious context of ancient India. Overall, the paper argues that a balanced integration of textual and archaeological evidence is essential for a more accurate understanding of Indian Buddhism.